Tuesday, April 6, 2010
Thursday, May 22, 2008
Top-Ten Teaching and Learning Issues, 2007
Interesting article from the EDUCAUSE Quarterly is online and the article Top-Ten Teaching and Learning Issues, 2007 was especially interesting to me as an instructional designer.
And the Top 10 are -
1. Establishing and supporting a culture of evidence
2. Demonstrating improvement of learning
3. Translating learning research into practice
4. Selecting appropriate models and strategies for e-learning
5. Providing tools to meet growing student expectations
6. Providing professional development and support to new audiences
7. Sharing content, applications, and application development
8. Protecting institutional data
9. Addressing emerging ethical challenges
10. Understanding the evolving role of academic technologists
And the Top 10 are -
1. Establishing and supporting a culture of evidence
2. Demonstrating improvement of learning
3. Translating learning research into practice
4. Selecting appropriate models and strategies for e-learning
5. Providing tools to meet growing student expectations
6. Providing professional development and support to new audiences
7. Sharing content, applications, and application development
8. Protecting institutional data
9. Addressing emerging ethical challenges
10. Understanding the evolving role of academic technologists
Models of Learning Theories- Summaries
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method of hands-on, active learning centered on the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems. PBL is a pedagogical approach and curriculum design methodology often used in higher education and high school settings.
The following are some of the defining characteristics of PBL:
- Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems with no one “right”answer
- Problems/cases are context specific
- Students work as self-directed, active investigators and problem-solvers in small
collaborative groups (typically of about five students)
- A key problem is identified and a solution is agreed upon and implemented
- Teachers adopt the role as facilitators of learning, guiding the learning process
and promoting an environment of inquiry.
Experiential Learning (Kolb)
A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. Educational theorist David A. Kolb believes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (1984, p. 38). The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages shown below. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:
- concrete experience (or “DO”)
- reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)
- abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)
- active experimentation (or “PLAN”)
The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a lab session or field work. The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that experience. The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed. The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience.
Discovery Learning (Bruner)
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissionist model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.
Situated Learning Theory (Lave)
Situated Learning Theory posits that knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning — learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert
Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor (birth to 2 years old), preoperational (2 to 4 years) old), concrete (7 to 11 years old), and formal (11 to 15 years old).
Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)
Multiple Intelligences Theory speculate that there are seven ways people understand in the world, described by Gardner as seven intelligences.
- Linguistic. The ability to use spoken or written words.
- Logical-Mathematical. Inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning abilities,
logic, as well as the use of numbers and abstract pattern recognition.
- Visual-Spatial. The ability to mentally visualize objects and spatial dimensions.
- Body-Kinesthetic. The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion
- Musical-Rhythmic. The ability to master music as well as rhythms, tones and beats.
- Interpersonal. The ability to communicate effectively with other people and to be
able to develop relationships.
- Intrapersonal. The ability to understand one’s own emotions, motivations, inner
states of being, and self-reflection.
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method of hands-on, active learning centered on the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems. PBL is a pedagogical approach and curriculum design methodology often used in higher education and high school settings.
The following are some of the defining characteristics of PBL:
- Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems with no one “right”answer
- Problems/cases are context specific
- Students work as self-directed, active investigators and problem-solvers in small
collaborative groups (typically of about five students)
- A key problem is identified and a solution is agreed upon and implemented
- Teachers adopt the role as facilitators of learning, guiding the learning process
and promoting an environment of inquiry.
Experiential Learning (Kolb)
A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. Educational theorist David A. Kolb believes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (1984, p. 38). The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages shown below. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:
- concrete experience (or “DO”)
- reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)
- abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)
- active experimentation (or “PLAN”)
The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a lab session or field work. The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that experience. The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed. The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience.
Discovery Learning (Bruner)
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissionist model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.
Situated Learning Theory (Lave)
Situated Learning Theory posits that knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning — learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert
Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor (birth to 2 years old), preoperational (2 to 4 years) old), concrete (7 to 11 years old), and formal (11 to 15 years old).
Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)
Multiple Intelligences Theory speculate that there are seven ways people understand in the world, described by Gardner as seven intelligences.
- Linguistic. The ability to use spoken or written words.
- Logical-Mathematical. Inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning abilities,
logic, as well as the use of numbers and abstract pattern recognition.
- Visual-Spatial. The ability to mentally visualize objects and spatial dimensions.
- Body-Kinesthetic. The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion
- Musical-Rhythmic. The ability to master music as well as rhythms, tones and beats.
- Interpersonal. The ability to communicate effectively with other people and to be
able to develop relationships.
- Intrapersonal. The ability to understand one’s own emotions, motivations, inner
states of being, and self-reflection.
Saturday, May 17, 2008
Formative vs Summative evaluation
There have been many discussions on the difference between formative and summative evaluation. What formative and what summative evaluation are?
Formative assessment:
Formative evaluation, which is mainly done internally, can be carried out at many points during an instructional design period. This would include several evaluation types
1. Needs Analysis- who needs the program, how important is the program, and what might work in the program to meet the need.
2. Evaluation of the assessment component
3. Structure of the program
4. Implementation evaluation
5. Process evaluation
Summative evaluation
Summative evaluation which is mainly done at the end of the program can also be divided into several components
1. Outcome evaluation-did it meet the need?
2. Impact evaluation- assess the overall effect of the program
3. Cost effectiveness and cost benefit
Formative assessment:
Formative evaluation, which is mainly done internally, can be carried out at many points during an instructional design period. This would include several evaluation types
1. Needs Analysis- who needs the program, how important is the program, and what might work in the program to meet the need.
2. Evaluation of the assessment component
3. Structure of the program
4. Implementation evaluation
5. Process evaluation
Summative evaluation
Summative evaluation which is mainly done at the end of the program can also be divided into several components
1. Outcome evaluation-did it meet the need?
2. Impact evaluation- assess the overall effect of the program
3. Cost effectiveness and cost benefit
Friday, May 16, 2008
The Four Pillars of Instructional Design
The Four pillars of designing an instructional online distributed course.
Many of us believe in the view that technology by itself does not improve teaching and learning, but well structured and pedagogically sounded practices and approaches do. Using the right blend of technology tools to create an effective learning setting that caters for all the learners is the key to successful course. The content of the course which I am trying to setup is about teaching contents using the “virtual” classroom environment. How the whole learning and teaching styles have been altered to cater for this new emerging environment. My vision for this ideal and to be successful course is to create one that has great interactions between the following pillars: contents, teachers, students and the online course interface (if it is online). Learning is a social activity as well as individual activity. Therefore interactions and collaboration suppose to be an important component of an online course (Harasim, 1995). Brown (1989) emphasized that learning does not happen in a vacuum, but within a culture and setting of a particular discipline. Using the right mixture of emerging technology tools can help tremendously in creating relationship and great interactions between all four pillars. As the contents of the course are for teachers and students, different media types will be used to deliver the course. I am a big believer of using different media to suit the particular situation. Somehow I tend to disagree with Clark (1994) that media does not influence learning. With the new emerging technology such as wiki’s and blogs, there is great evidence how these technology tools are improving learning in many subject areas.
I found reading the article by Rigney’s (1978) on learning strategies and assessment is interesting useful. I realize that certain things about my cognitive strategy need to be improved. I am convinced now that more frequent feedback is very important for motivation also is greatly appreciated by students. Therefore, Learning will be greatly enhanced when the instructor is present to provide ongoing support and opportunities for interactions between her and the students. As a result, it is important for online instructors to use PDA or Blackberry devices to respond to emails and postings on the discussion forums almost immediately. Technology tools that could be used to promote this interaction are: email, discussion forums, wikis and blogs. Interactions between students themselves could benefit them tremendously as mentioned earlier in the paper. Emerging technology tools that promote this type of interaction are: Wikis, blogs, and discussion forums. Finally, for any course to be successful we should always remember that Pedagogy is first and technology is second.
REFERENCE
Clark, R.E. 1994, “Media will never influence learning”, Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 21–9.
Cobb, T. 1997, “Cognitive efficiency: Towards a revised theory of media”, Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 21–35.
Harasim, L., Hiltz, S.R., Teles, L. & Turoff, M., 1995, Designs for learning networks, Learning Networks: A Field Guide to Teaching and Learning Online, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 125–44.
Many of us believe in the view that technology by itself does not improve teaching and learning, but well structured and pedagogically sounded practices and approaches do. Using the right blend of technology tools to create an effective learning setting that caters for all the learners is the key to successful course. The content of the course which I am trying to setup is about teaching contents using the “virtual” classroom environment. How the whole learning and teaching styles have been altered to cater for this new emerging environment. My vision for this ideal and to be successful course is to create one that has great interactions between the following pillars: contents, teachers, students and the online course interface (if it is online). Learning is a social activity as well as individual activity. Therefore interactions and collaboration suppose to be an important component of an online course (Harasim, 1995). Brown (1989) emphasized that learning does not happen in a vacuum, but within a culture and setting of a particular discipline. Using the right mixture of emerging technology tools can help tremendously in creating relationship and great interactions between all four pillars. As the contents of the course are for teachers and students, different media types will be used to deliver the course. I am a big believer of using different media to suit the particular situation. Somehow I tend to disagree with Clark (1994) that media does not influence learning. With the new emerging technology such as wiki’s and blogs, there is great evidence how these technology tools are improving learning in many subject areas.
I found reading the article by Rigney’s (1978) on learning strategies and assessment is interesting useful. I realize that certain things about my cognitive strategy need to be improved. I am convinced now that more frequent feedback is very important for motivation also is greatly appreciated by students. Therefore, Learning will be greatly enhanced when the instructor is present to provide ongoing support and opportunities for interactions between her and the students. As a result, it is important for online instructors to use PDA or Blackberry devices to respond to emails and postings on the discussion forums almost immediately. Technology tools that could be used to promote this interaction are: email, discussion forums, wikis and blogs. Interactions between students themselves could benefit them tremendously as mentioned earlier in the paper. Emerging technology tools that promote this type of interaction are: Wikis, blogs, and discussion forums. Finally, for any course to be successful we should always remember that Pedagogy is first and technology is second.
REFERENCE
Clark, R.E. 1994, “Media will never influence learning”, Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 21–9.
Cobb, T. 1997, “Cognitive efficiency: Towards a revised theory of media”, Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 21–35.
Harasim, L., Hiltz, S.R., Teles, L. & Turoff, M., 1995, Designs for learning networks, Learning Networks: A Field Guide to Teaching and Learning Online, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 125–44.
Assessment vs Evaluation
Current experience with Assessment and Evaluation
In my current context, evaluation is focused on both formatting and summative assessment. The formative assessment relates to finding out how well the learners have received the learning materials through the use of projects, course activities, lessons, assignment and exams. This kind of evaluation is done on all our courses. On the other hand the evaluation of the course or program is done at the end of the semester where students are asked to evaluate the course contents, delivery method and the instructor through the use of an online questionnaire. I don’t believe that anything had happened as a result of the questionnaires. Since we never hear about them and we don’t know on which desk they have been piled up. Many of the online courses been created at our college are done not on the basis of well structured analysis and design phases. But, as a result of none existing prescribed text book for the course. These online courses don’t gain any popularity for more than one semester as students and instructors discover that the quality does not meet the minimum learning and teaching expectations. Till now we don’t have a unit that supports the creation of teaching and learning materials at the system level.
Reflection to Readings
Top quality teaching requires top quality assessment and evaluation techniques. The process of evaluation is a complex process as pointed out by Cuba and Stafflebeen (1970). It involves continuous and intriguing work by everyone not just aiming at outcomes, or the degree of which objectives have been met. This view is also shared by Booth, Clayton, and House&Roy (2002) where they state that there is an increased emphasis on the need for continuous improvement of assessment and evaluation strategies and processes.
Boud (1998) believes that the greatest obstruction to improved assessment and therefore improved learning is our own experience of being assessed and our distress about it. Moreover, he points out that there is more bad practice and ignorance of significant issues in the area of assessment, than any other aspect of college education. Maki (2002) states that assessment in higher education is most viewed as a laborious work that only receive recognition at the time of inspection or auditing. She also stresses that there is a necessity for instructors to do more research on student learning, interpret results of student assessment to advance innovation in teaching and learning and to design better curriculum. Alice Reich (1983) supports this concept as well by stating that evaluations help to measure the gap between what the teacher teaches and what the student have learned.
The five main purposes of evaluation by Bramley and Newby said it all. They claim that evaluation is to provide feedback, control, research, and intervention. However, the primary decisive factor ought to be to improve student learning.
With the increased use of online and distributed learning as in our college, emphasis is now on the need to create greater flexibility in the area of assessing and evaluating learning objectives. However, the assessment of online and distributed learning should be judged by the same principle of validity , reliability, flexibility, and fairness that are used in face-to-face teaching strategies (Booth, Clayton, Hyde, Hartcher & Hunger 2002).
Both formative and summative assessments have big roles to play in distributed and online learning environment. Formative evaluation is used to judge the worth of the program while the program is being designed and it mainly focuses on process. At this stage of evaluation, the instructor and the learner monitor if the teaching objectives of the course have been met. Wally Guyot (1978) defines the primary reason for formative assessment is to build a process that accumulates pieces of teaching materials, skills, and problems into a meaningful whole. Summative evaluation which is mostly done at the end is to judge the worth of the program after everything has been completed and it mainly focuses on outcome. Summative assessment is used more as some of the literatures indicate (Anderson 2001; Booth, Haetcher & Hyde 2002) .
The four level training and evaluation model of Kirkpatrick (1994) seems to be the best model to evaluate the online and distributed learning courses. How are the students reacting to the learning process in terms of motivation, satisfaction, engagement, and worthiness could all be measured using the first phase of the model which is REACTION. Phase two of the model which is the LEARNING, measures the level of learning which takes place. This measurement can be done using tests, assignments, projects, or even change of attitudes of the learners. Assessment at this stage is about the progress and achievement of the individual learners. While evaluation process at this stage comes through the learner assessment.
The last two phases of the evaluation model which are PERFORMANCE and RESULTS. Both phases are part of the summative evaluation which will determine the success level of the overall program. Can the learner perform? Has the training achieved its objectives? Did the training contributed to the overall organizational improvement? Kaplan and Norton (2001) looked at the impact of the final two phases from four Perspectives: Financial, learner improvement, internal process improvement, and innovation in learning.
Conclusion
The area of assessment in higher education still has a long way to go. What I learned most form the readings is that assessment for formative purposes is designed to stimulate growth, change and improvement in the teaching and learning through reflective practice. Evaluation, in contrast, is used for summative purposes to give an overview of particular instructors teaching in particular course and environment. Informed judgments on teaching effectiveness can best be made when both assessment and evaluation are conducted, using several methods to elicit information from various angles on different characteristics on teaching.
Reference
Anderson, J Final Report: Flexible Learning Leaders. Research Investigation on Online Assessment as an Integral Part of Flexible Online Delivery.
http:// flexiblelearning.net.au/leaders/past_fellows/200/Janice_anderson.htm
Booth, R, Clayton, B, House, and Roy, S2002, Maximizing Confidence in Assessment Decision-making: A resource to assist Assessors to Maintain the Quality of their Assessment Systems. NCVER, Adelaide.
http://www.ncver.edu.au/research/proj/nr9029.
Boud , D (1998) Assessment and Learning – Unlearning bad habits of assessment University of Technology, Sydney
Clark, D. (1995). Big Dog ISD Page. Retrieved May 2, 2008 from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat6.html
Guba, E.G., & Stufflebeam, D.L. (1970). Evaluation: The process of stimulating, aiding and
abetting insightful action, Indiana: Indiana University.
Kaplan, R. S. and D. P. Norton. 2001. The Strategy-Focused Organization: How Balanced Scorecard Companies Thrive in the New Business Environment
Kirkpatrick, Donald, (1994). Evaluating Training Programs. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. (NOTE: Donald L. Kirkpatrick is a HRD Hall of Fame member.)
Maki P. (2002) Moving from paper work to Pedagogy Available at http://aahebulletin.com/public/archive/paperwork.asp
Stufflebeam, D.L. (1971). The relevance of the CIPP evaluation model for educational
accountability. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 5(1),–25. 19
In my current context, evaluation is focused on both formatting and summative assessment. The formative assessment relates to finding out how well the learners have received the learning materials through the use of projects, course activities, lessons, assignment and exams. This kind of evaluation is done on all our courses. On the other hand the evaluation of the course or program is done at the end of the semester where students are asked to evaluate the course contents, delivery method and the instructor through the use of an online questionnaire. I don’t believe that anything had happened as a result of the questionnaires. Since we never hear about them and we don’t know on which desk they have been piled up. Many of the online courses been created at our college are done not on the basis of well structured analysis and design phases. But, as a result of none existing prescribed text book for the course. These online courses don’t gain any popularity for more than one semester as students and instructors discover that the quality does not meet the minimum learning and teaching expectations. Till now we don’t have a unit that supports the creation of teaching and learning materials at the system level.
Reflection to Readings
Top quality teaching requires top quality assessment and evaluation techniques. The process of evaluation is a complex process as pointed out by Cuba and Stafflebeen (1970). It involves continuous and intriguing work by everyone not just aiming at outcomes, or the degree of which objectives have been met. This view is also shared by Booth, Clayton, and House&Roy (2002) where they state that there is an increased emphasis on the need for continuous improvement of assessment and evaluation strategies and processes.
Boud (1998) believes that the greatest obstruction to improved assessment and therefore improved learning is our own experience of being assessed and our distress about it. Moreover, he points out that there is more bad practice and ignorance of significant issues in the area of assessment, than any other aspect of college education. Maki (2002) states that assessment in higher education is most viewed as a laborious work that only receive recognition at the time of inspection or auditing. She also stresses that there is a necessity for instructors to do more research on student learning, interpret results of student assessment to advance innovation in teaching and learning and to design better curriculum. Alice Reich (1983) supports this concept as well by stating that evaluations help to measure the gap between what the teacher teaches and what the student have learned.
The five main purposes of evaluation by Bramley and Newby said it all. They claim that evaluation is to provide feedback, control, research, and intervention. However, the primary decisive factor ought to be to improve student learning.
With the increased use of online and distributed learning as in our college, emphasis is now on the need to create greater flexibility in the area of assessing and evaluating learning objectives. However, the assessment of online and distributed learning should be judged by the same principle of validity , reliability, flexibility, and fairness that are used in face-to-face teaching strategies (Booth, Clayton, Hyde, Hartcher & Hunger 2002).
Both formative and summative assessments have big roles to play in distributed and online learning environment. Formative evaluation is used to judge the worth of the program while the program is being designed and it mainly focuses on process. At this stage of evaluation, the instructor and the learner monitor if the teaching objectives of the course have been met. Wally Guyot (1978) defines the primary reason for formative assessment is to build a process that accumulates pieces of teaching materials, skills, and problems into a meaningful whole. Summative evaluation which is mostly done at the end is to judge the worth of the program after everything has been completed and it mainly focuses on outcome. Summative assessment is used more as some of the literatures indicate (Anderson 2001; Booth, Haetcher & Hyde 2002) .
The four level training and evaluation model of Kirkpatrick (1994) seems to be the best model to evaluate the online and distributed learning courses. How are the students reacting to the learning process in terms of motivation, satisfaction, engagement, and worthiness could all be measured using the first phase of the model which is REACTION. Phase two of the model which is the LEARNING, measures the level of learning which takes place. This measurement can be done using tests, assignments, projects, or even change of attitudes of the learners. Assessment at this stage is about the progress and achievement of the individual learners. While evaluation process at this stage comes through the learner assessment.
The last two phases of the evaluation model which are PERFORMANCE and RESULTS. Both phases are part of the summative evaluation which will determine the success level of the overall program. Can the learner perform? Has the training achieved its objectives? Did the training contributed to the overall organizational improvement? Kaplan and Norton (2001) looked at the impact of the final two phases from four Perspectives: Financial, learner improvement, internal process improvement, and innovation in learning.
Conclusion
The area of assessment in higher education still has a long way to go. What I learned most form the readings is that assessment for formative purposes is designed to stimulate growth, change and improvement in the teaching and learning through reflective practice. Evaluation, in contrast, is used for summative purposes to give an overview of particular instructors teaching in particular course and environment. Informed judgments on teaching effectiveness can best be made when both assessment and evaluation are conducted, using several methods to elicit information from various angles on different characteristics on teaching.
Reference
Anderson, J Final Report: Flexible Learning Leaders. Research Investigation on Online Assessment as an Integral Part of Flexible Online Delivery.
http:// flexiblelearning.net.au/leaders/past_fellows/200/Janice_anderson.htm
Booth, R, Clayton, B, House, and Roy, S2002, Maximizing Confidence in Assessment Decision-making: A resource to assist Assessors to Maintain the Quality of their Assessment Systems. NCVER, Adelaide.
http://www.ncver.edu.au/research/proj/nr9029.
Boud , D (1998) Assessment and Learning – Unlearning bad habits of assessment University of Technology, Sydney
Clark, D. (1995). Big Dog ISD Page. Retrieved May 2, 2008 from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat6.html
Guba, E.G., & Stufflebeam, D.L. (1970). Evaluation: The process of stimulating, aiding and
abetting insightful action, Indiana: Indiana University.
Kaplan, R. S. and D. P. Norton. 2001. The Strategy-Focused Organization: How Balanced Scorecard Companies Thrive in the New Business Environment
Kirkpatrick, Donald, (1994). Evaluating Training Programs. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. (NOTE: Donald L. Kirkpatrick is a HRD Hall of Fame member.)
Maki P. (2002) Moving from paper work to Pedagogy Available at http://aahebulletin.com/public/archive/paperwork.asp
Stufflebeam, D.L. (1971). The relevance of the CIPP evaluation model for educational
accountability. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 5(1),–25. 19
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